Pivotal times happened early

That's the third question The Evangelist posed to a nationwide panel of Church historians and scholars as part of its ongoing series leading up to the next millennium.

The monthly series has already asked the experts to name the top non-Roman Catholic Christian of the past 2,000 years (Martin Luther; see January 21 article) and the greatest pope in history (John XXIII; see Feb. 4 article).

This time, the scholars pondered this question: "Other than the life of Jesus, what time span has proven to be the most pivotal in the history of Catholicism?" They were asked to limit their answers to time spans of 100 years or less. The answers offered many eras in Church history, presented here in chronological order:

THE FIRST CENTURY

"On the one hand, this century saw the tragic loss of the Jewish nation to the Church. The exclusion of the Jewish Christians from the synagogues, the decision of the Council of Jerusalem not to demand of Christians observance of the Mosaic Law, and the destruction of Jerusalem by the Roman legion all contributed to this misfortune. On the other hand, the gift of tongues bestowed upon the Apostles on Pentecost manifested that the Good News of Jesus Christ must be heard by peoples of all languages."

Agreement with his choice came from Rev. James Wiseman, OSB, from the Department of Theology at The Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C. He called the choice of the period from the conversion of St. Paul until his death "so obvious that I wonder how anyone could answer differently. His boldness in opening the Church to the Gentiles without requiring them to observe basic points of the Mosaic Law allowed the 'Jesus movement' to expand from being a Jewish sect to what it eventually became: a world Church. Paul's willingness to stand up for his vision of freedom in the face of opposition from disciples who were more constricted in outlook is a great testimony to the power of God's grace working in someone who once hated 'the Way.'"

The First Century was also selected by Maureen A. Tilley, associate professor of religious studies at the University of Dayton in Ohio. From 60-160, she said, "the Church, aided by the Holy Spirit, underwent a profound transformation. As the Apostles died, the Church lost all of the members who had known Him personally. It came to understand the implications of the fact that Jesus would not return soon. It went through so many changes while remaining faithful:

* "From a small group of those who heard the word of God proclaimed by the Word of God, Jesus Himself, to a large community of those who know Him in many other ways, through Scripture, the Church, sacraments;

* "From a predominantly Jewish group which worshiped the one God to one composed of people whose ancestors had worshiped many gods;

* "From a community with primarily charismatic and personal leadership to one in which institutions and specific ordained officials.

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THE FOURTH CENTURY

"Other events of the period were no less important, but far less fortunate. In 395, the Emperor Theodosius decreed that Christianity was to be the official religion of the Empire. At that moment, the Church entered into an alliance with secular power, which was fateful for the future and which would, in time, link the Church in Asia and Africa with European colonial powers almost up to the dawn of the third millennium."

Rev. Charles D. Skok, professor emeritus of religious studies at Gonzaga University in Spokane, Washington, narrowed the era down to "the time of Pope Damasus and the Emperor Theodosius, roughly the year 380. It was at the time of Pope Damasus that the language of the liturgy was changed from Greek to Latin in the West. St. Jerome also translated the Bible into Latin to produce the Vulgate, the standard version used for centuries as the official Bible of the Catholic Church.

"The Pope and the bishops were given official status, with a corresponding recognition in civil society and the vesture befitting their positions. Christianity became the state church, supported by the Empire, often even as it was in conflict with the Empire. This marked the beginning of Christendom and its effects remain even till today."

The same era was chosen by Lawrence S. Cunningham from the Department of Theology at the University of Notre Dame. "In the space of less than 100 years," he explained, "Christianity went from being a counter-cultural, persecuted Church to one which first had official toleration (Constantine) and then became the official Church of the empire (Theodosius) with all that implied: the marriage of classical culture, jurisprudence, organization, to the Christian faith.

"This had both good and terrible effects. As Karl Rahner noted, it was only after Vatican II that we see a move to become a true 'World Church' as opposed to one married to the suppositions of Western culture."

Echoing both Profs. Dwyer and Cunningham was Dr. William R. Barnett, associate professor of religious studies at Le Moyne College in Syracuse, who said that "the Fourth Century was pivotal in the development of the theology of the Church and of its institutional history in relation to its cultural setting.

"The first ecumenical council, Nicaea I, managed to repudiate both Arianism and Gnosticism in the formulation of the Nicene Creed. This creed was modified and expanded in the Creed of Constantinople of 381 (ironically, the text that most Christians recite today as the 'Nicene Creed'), which became the chief doctrinal summary for most Christians ever since.

"At the end of the period by 420," Prof. Barnett continued, "St. Augustine of Hippo had responded theologically to a culture in decline in his massive 'De civitate Dei' ('The City of God') and had nearly completed the most influential theological legacy in the history of the Church."

In addition, Prof. Barnett noted, "institutionally, the Church emerged from the catacombs and the shadow of persecution to become the state religion of the Roman Empire under the Emperor Theodosius, a development of profound consequence and ambiguity insofar as it forever linked the fortunes of the Church as an institution with the those of the state.

"All these developments and others during the Fourth Century profoundly affected the Catholic Church throughout the medieval period and on to the present day."

Mary Meany, associate professor of religious studies at Siena College in Loudonville, said that "there is no doubt that the pivotal years in the history not only of Catholicism but of Christianity was the period 312-381.

"In 312, Constantine made Christianity a licit religion of the Empire, and in 381 Theodosius made Christianity the established religion of the Empire. This was the period when the fundamental patterns of Christianity's relationship to the political, economic and social order was established, and it was the period when fundamental patterns of Christian culture developed.

"Perhaps the most significant result of the new, positive relationship between Christianity and the Church is that Christians began to imagine Christ in more sophisticated ways, which, in turn, affected how they understood Him.

"Was this whole new relationship of Christianity and Empire good for Christianity?" Prof. Meany asked rhetorically. "It is usual to criticize, in particular the Church's involvement in the political and economic realms, and it is not unusual to criticize the cultural interplay. It seems to me, however, that what was happening was fundamentally not only beneficial but necessary if Christianity was to follow the great commandment: 'Go and make disciples of all nations.'"

THE SIXTH CENTURY

"This is when Catholicism became a western religion," he said. "The western churches, led by Rome, experienced increasingly difficult relations with the Byzantine East and got in the habit of going their own way. Also, the Byzantine emperor claimed to rule the Church, and popes would have none of that. The Church affirmed its independence of the state, something it had to struggle to maintain but a value which it never abandoned.

"In this period, virtually every western people either became Christian (the Irish, the English, the Germans) or were reformed to become more deeply Christian (the Italians, the French, the Spaniards). To this day, Catholicism is the great religion of the West.

"The Early Middle Ages is also the period when the popes rose to prominence in the Church, when the Catholic liturgy took shape, when devotion to Mary and the saints became prominent, and when Catholics produced a western theology, distinct from what was being produced in Byzantium."

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THE ELEVENTH CENTURY

"This first major split in the Catholic Church led to the division which remains today between Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy," he explained. "The split eventually affected not only the religious development of the churches but also the political and socio-economic systems in Eastern and Western Europe."

The results, Father Fiore noted, continue today "along the line from the Eastern border of Poland southward through Slovakia, Hungary, and between Croatia and Serbia to Greece. Religious animosities in the last mentioned regions recently, and all along the line in times past have developed into outright warfare, from the fourth crusade in the 13th century to the present. To use Pope John Paul II's image, the right lung of Christian Europe has been separated from its left lung."

***

THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

"The Summa Theologiae of Aquinas remains a sure theological and moral guide," he explained. "The philosophy incorporated therein has inspired a worldwide Thomistic movement, advanced in our day by some of the foremost Catholics thinkers of the 20th century, such as Etienne Gilson, Jacques Maritain and Garrigou Lagrange. The list of contemporary disciples would be lengthy and include John Paul II himself."

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THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

"The Church in the fifteenth and sixteenth century had been plagued with serious abuses, theological ambiguities, a loss of direction spiritually, and internal corruption," he said in explaining his selection. "This gave rise to many challenges to the Church and its authority, culminating with the Protestant Reformation. Given the seriousness of the situation, Pope Paul III (1534-49) realized that the Church needed a thorough reform if it was to put its house back in order.

"Certainly the theological clarifications decreed by Trent were significant and shaped Catholic teaching well into the present day. However, what makes this Council so significant is that it renewed the life of the Church. Realizing that reform would occur only if the clergy set the example, this Council restored the pastoral responsibilities of the bishop, which had been by and large lost. It was acknowledged by the Council that the bishop was the cornerstone of reform and thus had to be intimately involved in the life of the people he ministered to.

"Along with the bishop, the clergy were also responsible for ministering to the spiritual needs of the people. This could only occur if they were well educated. It was the Council of Trent that decreed that every diocese must establish a seminary for the intellectual and spiritual formation of the clergy, thereby raising the caliber of priests."

The result of all of that, he continued, was that "the spiritual life of the people underwent a renewal. The Council of Trent was the climax of the Catholic Reformation as it set the whole Church on a path of reform. What makes this Council so pivotal in my mind is that it rescued a Church that was lost at sea in the midst of a tumultuous storm."

The same time span was named by Rev. Robert Scully, SJ, assistant professor of history at Le Moyne College in Syracuse, "due to the combined influences of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Age of Discovery. In the Renaissance, there was a revival of interest in the ancient world; with regard to the Church, this caused a renewed interest in biblical studies and in the Fathers of the Church.

"The Reformation, although it caused a tragic split in Western Christianity, also brought about a renewal and intensification in spirituality and theological studies. Within Catholicism, it also spurred a range of new (e.g., the Jesuits) or reformed (e.g., the Carmelites) religious orders, as well as the influential decrees of the Council of Trent on doctrinal and moral issues.

"The age of overseas exploration and discovery resulted in greatly expanded European contact with many parts of Africa and Asia, as well as enormously influential contact with the New World. This ushered in perhaps the greatest period of Christian missionary expansion and activity since the first century."

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THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

"Both popes," he noted, "but especially Pius IX, have been reviled for their intransigent position towards modernity, particularly secular politics. Pius IX, for example, issued the 'Syllabus of Errors,' which listed many positions on politics and ideas which, if affirmed, brought condemnation from Rome. Leo XIII once insisted that, while Catholics and non-Catholics might have to mix out of practical concerns, it was better if Catholics consorted only with other Catholics.

"The hostile reactions these cases usually elicit mask the interesting links between the Church then and now," he continued. "The Pope's current wave of popularity as a media figure has its roots in Pius IX's refusal to recognize the new secular Italian nation, thus making himself a 'prisoner in the Vatican.' The overall effect, though, was that Catholics worldwide regarded Pius much like the current Pope: a holy man besieged by the callous modern world.

"Perhaps more significantly, the significant theological transformations begun by Vatican II (1962-1965) stemmed from, and of course, reacted against Pius' 'siege mentality' and the Thomistic intellectual structure instituted by Leo XIII.

"Finally, an overwhelming majority of Catholic social teaching -- whether dealing with personal morality or communal justice -- takes its lead from Leo XIII's labor encyclical, 'Rerum Novarum.' Issued in 1891, it demanded just wages for workers, humane labor conditions and access to property."

(03-18-99)
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